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Gender inequality at the labour market

Gender inequality at the labour market xmdr9
When evaluating the regression equations, it is necessary to take into account that women's participation in the labor force is endogenous, since the sample excludes women who did not want to work for the wages offered in the labor market, but chose not to work at all. Such assumptions lead to a bias in the estimates of the coefficients obtained by least squares method. Offset correction is performed using the Heckman procedure (Heckman, 1979). However, our Heckman procedure showed that the probability of being included in the sample, for both women and men, is not related to the level of wages. Therefore, the simulation results below were obtained without correcting for sample bias. The lack of influence of wages on selection for employment in the countries of the former USSR is also noted in the works (Oshchepkov 2007; Khitarishvili 2019). The obtained results indicate a different nature of the selection for work in countries with economies in transition compared with developed economies. The first additive component which is on the right represents the explained share of the gender wage gap attributable to observed worker characteristics. The second and third terms are the unexplained share of the gender pay gap, which characterizes the difference in returns to characteristics. Newmark's modification makes it possible to solve the problem of establishing the wage structure at the same productivity, by determining it by coefficients from the regression equation common for men and women, and also to obtain more accurate estimates of the unexplained part of the decomposition. Another problem is sensitivity of decomposition methods to the choice of base for categorical variables. To solve this problem, we normalized categorical variables using Yun's method (Yun, 2005), according to which the “true” contribution of the variables to the wage difference is the mean of the estimates of the coefficients of equations with different base categories. A limitation of the Oaxaca-Blinder method is its application only for the decomposition of average wages. Decomposition methods based on quantile regressions are used to decompose the differences in wages between men and women in other parts of the distribution. In accordance with the method (Chernozhukov et al. , 2008), a linear probabilistic model is constructed for group A. Based on the obtained estimates of the parameters β ̂_A, the predicted values of the probabilities Λ(X_i β ̂_A (y)) are calculated, где Λ(·) - is a linear relationship function and averaging is performed over the predicted probabilities to obtain a counterfactual distribution F ̂_(Y_A^C ) (y): F ̂_(Y_A^C ) (y)=1/n_B ∑_(i∈B)▒〖Λ(X_i β ̂_A (y))〗. (3) After obtaining the counterfactual distribution, counterfactual quantiles are found by inverting the estimated distribution function: Q_(A, θ)^C=F ̂_(Y_A^C)^(-1) (θ). (4) Using the decomposition method described above, it is possible to perform an aggregate decomposition of pay differentials. The results of the decomposition based on quantile regressions indicate significant differences in the estimates of the gender gap at different levels of the wage distribution. As we move from low-paying jobs to high-paying jobs, we see an increase in both the overall pay gap and the effects of the structure and composition of wages. In contrast to the results of the study (Newell, Reilly 2001), where the authors recorded a difference in the size of the gap between the 1st and 9th percentiles at 0. 33 log points for Kazakhstan, we found a decrease in this difference to 0. 13 log points. This indicates a decrease in the differentiation of the gender wage gap between quantile groups of workers. However, the problem of the largest gap for high-paid men and women remains at 33% versus 18% for low-paid workers. The highest value of the unexplained part of the gender gap at the 90% quantile indicates differences in remuneration of men and women, other things being equal, and may indicate the presence of a "glass ceiling" in the Kazakhstani labor market. The different signs for the explained gender wage gap in different parts of the distribution indicate different contributions of the variables to the size of the gap. Consequently, a more detailed analysis of the causes of the gender gap for groups of workers with different income levels is required, which indicates further prospects for studying gender inequality in labor market of the Republic of Kazakhstan. However, analysis of the gender pay gap at different distribution quantiles showed significant differences between low-paid and high-paid workers. The wage gap between men and women is widening as the transition from low-paid to high-paid workers continues to grow. The largest return on decile 9 of the distribution of wages indicates the “glass ceiling” problem in the Kazakhstani labor market.
When evaluating the
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regression
equations, it is necessary to take into account that women's participation in the
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
labor
force is endogenous, since the sample excludes
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
women
who did not want to
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
work
for the wages offered in the
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
labor
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
market
,
This phrase/word is too simple and can be replaced with:
but
chose not to
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work
at all. Such assumptions lead to a bias in the
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
estimates
of the coefficients
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obtained
by least squares
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method
. Offset correction
is performed
using the
Possible spelling mistake found.
Heckman
procedure (
Possible spelling mistake found.
Heckman
, 1979).
However
, our
Possible spelling mistake found.
Heckman
procedure
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
showed
that the probability of
being included
in the sample, for both
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
women
and
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
men
, is not related to the level of wages.
Therefore
, the simulation
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
results
below were
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
obtained
without correcting for sample bias. The lack of influence of wages on selection for employment in the countries of the former USSR is
also
noted in the works (
Possible spelling mistake found.
Oshchepkov
2007;
Possible spelling mistake found.
Khitarishvili
2019). The
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obtained
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results
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indicate
a
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different
nature of the selection for
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work
in countries with economies in transition compared with developed economies.

Three successive sentences begin with the same word. Consider rewording the sentence or use a thesaurus to find a synonym.
The
first
additive component which is on the right represents the
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
explained
share of the gender wage
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gap
attributable to observed
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worker
characteristics.
Three successive sentences begin with the same word. Consider rewording the sentence or use a thesaurus to find a synonym.
The
second and third terms are the unexplained share of the gender
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pay
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gap
, which characterizes the
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difference
in returns to characteristics.
Possible spelling mistake found.
Newmark
's modification
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makes
it possible to solve the
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problem
of establishing the wage structure at the same productivity, by determining it by coefficients from the
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regression
equation common for
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men
and
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women
, and
also
to obtain more accurate
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estimates
of the unexplained
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part
of the decomposition.

Another
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problem
is sensitivity of
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decomposition
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methods
to the choice of base for categorical variables. To solve this
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problem
, we normalized categorical variables using
Possible spelling mistake found.
Yun
's
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method
(
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Yun
, 2005), according to which the “true” contribution of the variables to the wage
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difference
is the mean of the
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estimates
of the coefficients of equations with
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different
base categories.

A limitation of the Oaxaca-Blinder
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method
is its application
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
only
for the
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decomposition
of average wages.
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Decomposition
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methods
based on quantile
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regressions
are
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
used
to decompose the
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differences
in wages between
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men
and
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women
in other
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parts
of the
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distribution
. In accordance with the
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method
(
Possible spelling mistake found.
Chernozhukov
et al.
Put a space after the comma, but not before the comma
,
2008), a linear probabilistic model
is constructed
for group A.

Based on the
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obtained
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estimates
of the parameters β ̂_A, the predicted values of the probabilities Λ(
In standard English, a word does not contain an underscore character (_). Make sure that the word 'X _ i' is correct.
X_i
β ̂_A (y))
are calculated
,
Possible spelling mistake found.
где
Λ(·)
Consider using an m-dash if you do not want to join two words.
-
is a linear relationship function and averaging
is performed
over the predicted probabilities to obtain a counterfactual
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distribution
F ̂_(Y_
Possible spelling mistake found.
A^C
Don't put a space before the closing parenthesis
)
(y):

F ̂_(Y_
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A^C
Don't put a space before the closing parenthesis
)
(y)=1/n_B ∑_(
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i∈B
)
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▒〖Λ
(
In standard English, a word does not contain an underscore character (_). Make sure that the word 'X _ i' is correct.
X_i
β ̂_A (y))〗. (3)

After obtaining the counterfactual
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distribution
, counterfactual quantiles
are found
by inverting the estimated
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distribution
function:

Q_(A, θ)
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^C
=F ̂_(Y_
Possible spelling mistake found.
A^C
)^(-1) (θ). (4)

Using the
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decomposition
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method
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
described
above, it is possible to perform an aggregate
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decomposition
of
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pay
differentials.

The
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results
of the
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decomposition
based on quantile
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regressions
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indicate
significant
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differences
in the
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estimates
of the gender
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gap
at
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different
levels of the wage
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distribution
. As we
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
move
from low-paying jobs to high-paying jobs, we
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
see
an increase in both the
overall
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pay
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gap
and the effects of the structure and composition of wages.
In contrast
to the
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
results
of the study (Newell,
Reilly
2001), where the authors recorded a
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
difference
in the size of the
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
gap
between the 1st and 9th percentiles at 0. 33 log points for Kazakhstan, we found a decrease in this
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difference
to 0. 13 log points. This
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indicates
a decrease in the differentiation of the gender wage
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
gap
between quantile groups of
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workers
.
However
, the
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problem
of the largest
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gap
for high-paid
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men
and
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women
remains at 33% versus 18% for low-paid
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workers
. The highest value of the unexplained
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part
of the gender
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gap
at the 90% quantile
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indicates
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differences
in remuneration of
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men
and
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women
, other things being equal, and may
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indicate
the presence of a
Use a smart opening quote here: "“".
"
glass ceiling
Use a smart closing quote here: "”".
"
in the
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Kazakhstani
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labor
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market
. The
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different
signs for the
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explained
gender wage
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gap
in
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different
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parts
of the
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distribution
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indicate
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different
contributions of the variables to the size of the
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gap
.
Consequently
, a more detailed analysis of the causes of the gender
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gap
for groups of
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workers
with
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different
income levels
is required
, which
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indicates
further
prospects for studying gender inequality in
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
labor
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
market
of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

However
, analysis of the gender
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pay
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
gap
at
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different
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distribution
quantiles
This phrase/word (depending on the context) can be potentially replaced with :
showed
significant
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differences
between low-paid and high-paid
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workers
. The wage
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gap
between
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men
and
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women
is widening as the transition from low-paid to high-paid
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workers
continues to grow. The largest return on
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decile
9 of the
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distribution
of wages
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indicates
the “glass ceiling”
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problem
in the
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Kazakhstani
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labor
You use this word too often, consider replacing it with
market
.
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IELTS essay Gender inequality at the labour market

Essay
  American English
10 paragraphs
767 words
5.5
Overall Band Score
Coherence and Cohesion: 5.5
  • Structure your answers in logical paragraphs
  • ?
    One main idea per paragraph
  • Include an introduction and conclusion
  • Support main points with an explanation and then an example
  • Use cohesive linking words accurately and appropriately
  • Vary your linking phrases using synonyms
Lexical Resource: 5.0
  • Try to vary your vocabulary using accurate synonyms
  • Use less common question specific words that accurately convey meaning
  • Check your work for spelling and word formation mistakes
Grammatical Range: 6.5
  • Use a variety of complex and simple sentences
  • Check your writing for errors
Task Achievement: 5.0
  • Answer all parts of the question
  • ?
    Present relevant ideas
  • Fully explain these ideas
  • Support ideas with relevant, specific examples
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