QCMs have the ability, flexibility, and high potential

QCMs have the ability, flexibility, and high potential to study environmental surface processes in the solid-liquid interface. However, in addition to the uncertainty surrounding data analysis and interpretation, QCMs also have inherent limitations that prevent their widespread use. First of all, although technically almost all surface reactions involving a mass change at the solid/liquid interface can be characterized by the QCM method, they are not sensitive to atoms and small molecules. In addition, their mass quantity is neither selective (it can not distinguish different water or sorbates) nor direct (mass is not directly measured but modeled) [134]. In the case of lung cancer, the first evidence that an electronic nose can detect cancer by breath analysis was obtained in 2003 using an array of porphyrin-coated QCMs. [9] Biological tests can help reveal their important roles in physiological and pathological progression and provide useful methods for diagnosing and treating life-threatening diseases. In this regard, biosensors have attracted a lot of interest due to their unique advantages over traditional detection techniques. In particular, optical biosensors are the most common sensing systems today [135].